Journal Review 135120207121017

Dianira Pradnya Murti

135120207121017

Journal Review: IMPACT OF PAST CRISES ON CURRENT CRISIS COMMUNICATION

Situational Crisis Communication Theory (SCCT, 2007), posited by W. Timothy Coombs is a theory in the field of crisis communication. It suggests that crisis managers should match strategic crisis responses to the level of crisis responsibility and reputational threat posed by a crisis. Evaluating the crisis type, crisis history and prior relationship reputation will help crisis managers predict the level of reputational threat of an organization and how that organization’s publics will perceive the crisis and attribute crisis responsibility. Thus SCCT can be applied in an organization's crisis management.

Coombs created his experimentally based SCCT to give communicators scientific evidence to guide their decisions, essentially stating that the actions an organization takes post-crisis depends on the crisis situation. “SCCT identifies how key facets of the crisis situation influence attributions about the crisis and the reputations held by stakeholders. In turn, understanding how stakeholders will respond to the crisis informs the post-crisis communication”.

With empirical evidence to support his theory, Coombs provided a summary of crisis response strategy guidelines for crisis managers. SCCT provides crisis managers with an evidence-based guide to assessing and responding to crises, allowing them to make informed, strategic, and beneficial decisions.

Theoretical framework

The roots for SCCT can be found in Attribution Theory. Attribution Theory holds that people constantly look to find causes, or make attributions, for different events, especially if those events are particularly negative or unexpected. People will attribute responsibility for the event and react emotionally to that event. In the case of organizations, attributions of causality elicit emotional reactions from stakeholders, especially negative emotions if the organization is attributed as the cause for a crisis. These negative emotions, like anger, affect stakeholders’ future interactions with the organization, changing behaviors like purchases and word-of-mouth recommendations.

Attribution Theory provided one of the first links between crisis situations and crisis responses. Attributions of responsibility that shape strategic crisis responses formed the foundation for SCCT. Coombs built upon Attribution Theory, using it as a base to predict the severity of potential reputational harm—or reputational threat—a crisis may bring to an organization and, using that prediction, guide communication response decisions to minimize damage.

Coombs draws on William Benoit's image restoration theory in his conceptualization of responsibility and reputational threat, stating that perception is fundamental to assessments of both components. If the audience perceives that the organization is at fault, a reputational threat is put into existence and the organization is held responsible.

Crisis responsibility and reputational threat

SCCT suggests that the key to determining the most effective strategic crisis response is understanding the crisis situation and the amount of reputational threat being posed by the crisis. Reputational threat is how much damage a crisis could inflict on an organization if no action is taken to respond to it. Reputational threat is influenced by three elements: (1) initial crisis responsibility, (2) crisis history and (3) prior relational reputation.

Initial crisis responsibility is how much the organization’s stakeholders attribute the crisis to the organization; how responsible the key publics hold the organization itself for the crisis. In assessing the level of reputational threat facing an organization, crisis managers must first determine the type of crisis facing the organization.

Types of crises

Coombs has identified three “crisis clusters,” or types of crises, in his SCCT research: the victim cluster, the accidental cluster, and the intentional cluster. Table 2 outlines these crisis clusters. In the victim cluster, the organization is not attributed as the cause of the crisis; rather, the organization is viewed as a victim. In the accidental cluster, the organization has been nominally attributed as the cause of the crisis, but the situation is generally viewed by stakeholders as being unintentional or simply accidental. In the intentional cluster, the organization is given all or most of the attributions for the crisis and shoulders the responsibility. In this case the crisis is considered deliberate.

Once it is determined which type of crisis, or which cluster, the organization’s situation falls under, managers can predict how much attribution will be placed on the organization and how much reputational threat it is facing. In fact, Coombs’ own prior research showed that crisis responsibility and organizational reputation are negatively related.

Crisis history and relational reputation

Another element that threatens an organization’s reputation is its history of crisis, whether it has faced similar crises in the past. Within this context, how well an organization has treated its stakeholders in the past—its prior relational reputation—also plays a part in assessing reputational threat. These two elements are involved in the second step crisis managers must take in evaluating the reputational threat facing the organization: if either of these elements exist within the organization, it will intensify attributions of the organization and increase the level of reputational threat. If an organization has a history of facing crises or a poor history of dealing with its stakeholders, attributions of crisis responsibility and the level of reputational threat are greater.

Because of crisis responsibility and reputational threat, crises can effect changes in emotions, and as a result, behaviors. If a person perceives an organization to have a high level of crisis responsibility, he or she is more likely to have feelings of anger toward the organization. Conversely, lower levels of crisis responsibility can evoke feelings of sympathy. Both of these feelings can affect the behaviors of the person toward the organization, whether that person will act positively or negatively toward the organization.

Crisis response strategies

Once the levels of crisis responsibility and reputational threat have been determined, SCCT provides crisis managers with a theoretical base to their strategic crisis response. SCCT’s list for responding to crises assumes that the organization has accepted some level of responsibility for the crisis. Coombs found that the primary responses to crises in SCCT form three groups: deny, diminish, and rebuild.

Each of these strategies helps the organization get its side of the story into the media. After all how the crisis is framed in the media will determine how the organization’s publics view the situation. The media’s frames become the stakeholders’ frames. The deny strategies help establish a crisis frame and sever any perceived connection between the organization and the crisis. If the organization is not involved, or if the crisis is a rumor the organization can dispel, and stakeholders and the media accept that there is no crisis, no reputational harm will be done.

Diminish crisis responses attempt to assure the organization’s publics that the crisis is not as bad as it seems or that the organization had nothing to do with the situation. These strategies help lessen the connection between the organization and the crisis and help the organization’s publics see the crisis in a less negative light. However, these strategies must be reinforced with credible evidence. If conflicting crisis frames are presented in the media, the organization’s publics will adopt whichever frame comes from the most credible source. Rebuild strategies help change perceptions of an organization during a crisis by offering real or symbolic forms of aid to victims and asking their forgiveness. These strategies attempt to take the focus off the crisis by taking positive action.

A secondary type of responses, bolstering, attempts to increase positive reputational perceptions by presenting “new, positive information about the organization and/or reminding stakeholders of past good works by the organization”. This strategy can bolster goodwill and arouse feelings of sympathy toward the organization, but Coombs warns, should be used to supplement the primary responses, not as replacements.

SCCT suggests that how an organization communicates with its publics—what it says—will affect its publics’ perceptions of the organization. Those perceptions can shape how an organization’s publics emotionally react to or behave toward to the organization. Therefore, the communication decisions crisis managers make in the wake of a crisis could have great consequences, either positive or negative. It is imperative that crisis managers act strategically to save the organization’s reputation. According to Coombs: “Crisis response strategies have three objectives relative to protecting reputations: (1) shape attributions of the crisis, (2) change perceptions of the organization in crisis and (3) reduce the negative effect generated by the crisis."

Journal Review: Understanding Image Restoration Strategies from a Stakeholder Approach 

This article focuses on image restoration strategies, a practice in public relations. Specifically, this article proposes two major theoretical frameworks;  theory of social construction of reality and stakeholder analysis approach in studying image restoration in parallel with Benoit’s image restoration theory (1995). Besides focusing to the limited message strategies of Benoit’s image restoration from the traditional perspective, as providing the practitioners merely ‘what’ strategies to be selected as to respond to the crisis, it is possible that deeper understanding on ‘how’ image restoration messages works and to design message tailored each group of stakeholders should be obtained. Most importantly, this article provides both scholars and practitioners an understanding and fine-tuning restoration messages with specific group of stakeholder in order to regain positive organization image. 

Basic concepts of image restoration theory

Two components must be present in a given attack to the image of an individual or organization:

1.     The accused is held responsible for an action, and

2.   The act is considered offensive.

Image restoration theory is grounded in two fundamental assumptions.

1.     Communication is a goal directed activity. Communicators may have multiple goals that are not collectively compatible, but people try to achieve goals that are most important to them at the time, with reasonable cost.

2.     Maintaining a favorable reputation is a key goal of communication. Because face, image, or reputation is valued as important, individuals or organizations are motivated to take action when it is compromised.

Perception is fundamental to image restoration, as the accused actor will not engage in a defensive strategy unless the perception exists that he is at fault. The actor who committed the wrongful act must decide on the strategy of best course based on their specific situation. Factors such as credibility, audience perceptions, and the degree of offensiveness of the act must be taken into account.

Theoretical framework

The theory of image restoration builds upon theories of apologia and accounts. Apologia is a formal defense or justification of an individual’s opinion, position, or actions, and an account is a statement made by an individual or organization to explain unanticipated or transgressive events.

Benoit claims that these treatments of image restoration focus on identifying options rather than prescribing solutions. He grounds image restoration theory on a comprehensive literature review of apologia and accounts theories.

Specific influences of image restoration theory include Rosenfield’s (1968) theory of analog, Ware and Linkugel's (1973) theory of apologia; Kenneth Burke's (1970) theory of goals and purification; Ryan's (1982) kategoria and apologia; Scott and Lyman's (1968) analysis of accounts; Goffman’s (1967) remedial moves; Schonbach's (1980) updated analysis of Scott and Lyman’s (1968) theory; and Schlenker’s (1980) analysis of impression management and accounts.

This article allows both communication scholars and public relations practitioners to develop a deeper understanding on image restoration. In addition to apply the five existing Benoit’s image restoration strategies in repairing image after the crisis, scholars will be able to understand ‘how’ the image restoration message function. That is how communication is used to create reality. That is language as reality-image-- construction. Also, the knowledge of stakeholder approach when incorporating with the image restoration strategies enables the practitioners in being aware of the existence of multiple interpretations influencing an individual perception regarding an organization’s image. Therefore, practitioners should be strategically design the restoration message based upon the framework of socially construction of reality and the multiinterpretations to successfully communicate with its stakeholders.

Refferences :

Coombs, W.T. (2004). Impact of past crises on current crisis communication: cnsights from situational crisis communication theory. Journal Of Business Communication, 41 (3), 265-289. DOI: 10.1177/0021943604265607

Kessadayurat, C. (2011). Understanding image restoration strategies from a stakeholder approach. BU Academic Review, 10 (1), 282-287

7th Journal Review

Inge Ade Zinnia

135120207121011

Impact of past crises on current crisis communication

By

W. Timothy Coombs

&

Understanding image restoration strategies from a stakeholder approach

By

Chutime Kessadayurat

The first journal mainly talks about the situational crisis communication(SCCT) and discuess about the implications for the practice of crisis communication and further development of SCCT. SCCT argues that whether people know about past crises is an important consideration for crisis managers. Indeed, SCCT suggest that to adequately protect an organization’s reputation, management must adjust their communication to account for possible past crises about which relevant publics are aware. This journal examined the extent to which reputational threat of a victimization or accidental crisis increased when the organization had a history of similar crises. And the result from this journal is that part of SCCT which suggests that crisis history should result in crisis managers selecting response strategies that accept greater responsibility and that demonstrate increased concern for victim’s needs than would normally be used for given crisis situation. By accounting for the effects of crisis history, crisis managers can craft messages that more effectively protect the organization’s reputational assets.

The second journal focuses on image restoration strategies, a practice in public relations. This journal proposes two major theoritical frameworks, theory of social construction of reality and stakeholder analysis approach in studying image restoration in parallel with Benoit’s image restoration theory. Most importantly, this journal provides both scholars and practitioners an understanding and fine-tunning restoration messages with specific group of stakeholder in order to regain positive organization image. This journal allows both communication scholars and public relations practitioners to develop a deeper understanding on image restoration. Practitioners should be strategically design the restoration messages based upon the framework of socially construction of reality and the multiinterpretations to succesfully communicate with its stakeholder.

Journal Resume

In every organization life (whether it is profit or nonprofit) crisis become something that cant be separated on its life. This because organization is consist of human which character is dynamic then organization turns out to be dynamic as well. Due to this dynamic movement when one condition goes to another condition, a crisis should does exist then. Crisis occurred when something unplanned and unpredicted suddenly come arise. This crisis is negative condition of the organization. However crisis can be something that gives positive effect to the organization or vise versa. This effect is depending on the way its organization handle the crisis. When the organization handle the crisis in right way, the organization possibly gain positives effect over it. Then the key on solving crisis of organization is the organization communication itself.

Image comes to be crucial in the organization since the organization live in the image. Image is the perception of the people about what they see. Then the organization need to maintain its organization activity in order to create the image of organization itself. Image comes to be a thing that organization need to be focused because when the organization public did something that against the organization tried to build up among them then the organization can loose its public. When the organization loose the public it means the organization has failed to be an organization. How could it be? There are two organization public, the internal and external one. The internal public is consist of the employee, funders, etc. Then the external public is consist of the consumer, customer, etc. Can you imagine how the organization can work when they don’t have any employee? Or could the organization operated when they doesn’t have any costumer?

Maintaining, Building, Managing Image is important thing since when there is a miss about the organization image crisis can come to live. Although crisis could turn the organization into a positive position still it cant be denied that something stable more likable rather than the unstable one. In order to creating stability of organization managing image in order to avoiding crisis and also solving crises in right way come to be the solutions.   

The journals that I would like to resume are belongs to the way organization handle its crisis. The first journal is Impact of Past Crises on Current Crisis Communication, Insights from Situational Crisis Communication Theory. This journal is authorized by W. Timothy Coombs in 2004. Another journal entitle Understanding Image Restoration Strategies from Stakeholder Approach which authorized by Chutima Kessadayurat.

The first journal would like to explain on how the crisis of organization arise in the organization. Thus the author explained about the correlation between the crises history and the organization reputation. By giving the example of case study in Philips Petroleum Company in Pasadena, Texas and using theory of Situational Communication Crisis Theory, the author proved that crisis history have effect on organizational reputation. It is explained by seeing the digram below.

The second journal which entitle Understanding Image Restoration Strategies from Stakeholder Approach explained about the way on handling crisis we need to do image restoration (Benoit’s Image Restoration Theory). She explained that Image restoration strategy focus on the message which delivered along the communication process. Then according to Benoit (1995), there are five strategies to conduct it, Denial, Evasion of responsibility, Reduce the offensiveness of the act, Corrective action and Mortification. Then stakeholder point of view comes to the focus of organization because the image of organization is actually comes form those stakeholders. By understanding the stakeholders Image Restoration strategy that the organization takes wont be failure, then the crises well-handled.

            In the end the track records of organization’s crisis can created the organization reputation. Otherwise image management failure can create a crisis for the organization. Then the solution on facing that worst scenario is by doing image restoration. This Image restoration strategy can solve the crisis as if the organization did it by using Stakeholder point of view, since the organization image and reputations comes from the stakeholder reality.

References

Coombs, W.T. (2004). Impact of past crises on current crisis communication: cnsights from situational crisis communication theory. Journal Of Business Communication, 41 (3), 265-289. DOI: 10.1177/0021943604265607

Kessadayurat, C. (2011). Understanding image restoration strategies from a stakeholder approach. BU Academic Review, 10 (1), 282-287

Resumed by Ananda Nibras Khairunnisa (135120207121018)

10^th & 11^th Journal Review:

Understanding Image Restoration Strategies from a Stakeholder Approach

Chutima Kessadayurat

The research of image restoration is scarce (Benoit, 2001), and, moreover, most of the image restoration studies are based on western theory, which may be or may be not wholly applicable to Thai context, which mainly due to the cultural differences between western and eastern contexts, which influence the practice of image restoration. The theory might need to be adapted to applicable in Thai context. Moreover, the theory allows merely the identification of typology, not the process of how the strategy is communicated. This article, as highlighting the significance of stakeholders in designing image restoration message, should extend the body of knowledge of the image restoration

            Crisis communication is regarded as an important area in the study of corporate communication. It is possible to say that every public and private organization has been encountered with a crisis. Crisis is typically viewed as a threat to an organizational image and an organization attempts to find ways to respond to the crisis and to regain public trust. Crisis can be viewed through its shared variables that are normally found in the examination of a crisis and the organization’s response. Generally, crisis is categorized in terms of public perception, marketing shift, product failure, top management succession and financial crisis. Organization can manage crisis by taking both preventive and restorative approaches.

            Image restoration is considered as a crisis communication approach in recovering an organization’s image. Benoit’s theory of image restoration discourse (1995) explained that “when [a person or organization] image is threatened, it is often considered essential to take action to repair that image” (Benoit & Pang, 2008). Benoit’s image repair theory (1995) offers five image restoration strategies to understand the image repair message. The strategies included 1) Denial, 2) Evasion of responsibility: 3) Reduce the offensiveness of the act: 4) Corrective action: 5) Mortification. Since the image restoration strategy focuses primarily on the message factor, as explained by Benoit (1995), it is clear that image restoration deals with the process of communication. One way to understand the image restoration message as communication process is through the perspective of social construction.

            This article allows both communication scholars and public relations practitioners to develop a deeper understanding on image restoration. The knowledge of stakeholder approach when incorporating with the image restoration strategies enables the practitioners in being aware of the existence of multiple interpretations influencing an individual perception regarding an organization’s image. Therefore, practitioners should be strategically design the restoration message based upon the framework of socially construction of reality and the multi-interpretations to successfully communicate with its stakeholders.

IMPACT OF PAST CRISES ON CURRENT CRISIS COMMUNICATION

Insights From Situational Crisis Communication Theory

W. Timothy Coombs

This second journal is pretty much the same with the first journal above since it describes how an organization that's going through a crisis and lead to several killed-workers that's caused by an error in the SOP work. Because of this case, the Phillips Petroleum Company experienced a reputation’s fall and it can be solved though by using SCCT (Situational Crisis Communication Theory), which it is about how people know the past crisis is an important consideration for crisis managers and it can use the crisis response strategy to establish perception of the crisis and the organization itself. There are 3 factors that affects the application and implementation of the implication, which are first stability that's intended to explain how the company deliver the progress of the case regularly; second is external control that's how and what the cause of the events whether it can be properly controlled or restrained; the third is control of personal that's how the company’s control reflects on the cause of the event can be controlled by the company itself.

Bibliography:

·      Coombs, W.T. (2004). Impact of Past Crisis on Current Crisis Communication: Insights from Situational Crisis Communication Theory. Journal of Business Communication, 41(3), 265-289.

·      Kessadayurat, C. (2011). Understanding Image Restoration Strategies from a Stakeholder Approach. BU Academic Review, 10(1), 282-287.

By: Putri Dena Ramadhania (135120207121025)

Assignment: Resume of Journal by Bela Dina Hakiki - 135120207121027

Understanding Image Restoration Strategies

from a Stakeholder Approach

by Chutima Kessadayurat

and

Impact of Past Crises on Current Crisis
Communication
Insights from Situational
Crisis Communication Theory
W. Timothy Coombs

This paper consist of my summary from journal “Understanding Image Restoration Strategies from a Stakeholder Approach” by Chutima Kessadayurat and “Impact of Past Crises on Current Crisis Communication Insights from Situational Crisis Communication Theory” by W. Timothy Coombs. The purpose of my summary is how to restoration image using stakeholder Approach and how integrate the same medium that sparked the crisis into the strategies to manage the situation, and it questions the efficacy of best practices and principles of crisis management.

The journal talking about the strategies of the company, organization or indivual, to retorationing their image using stakeholder approach. Where in resolving the crisis that they are experiencing. They are using construction of social construction, in the case smart PR should make a press release, conference, or anything that could construct the thoughts of stakeholders. Crisis itself classified in several theories. But eventually, most agreed that the problem was a life cycle that can described as shown below.

Review Journal of "Understanding Image Restoration Strategies from a Stakeholder Approach" and "Impact of Past Crises on Current Crisis Communication"

Dea Cindy P.S.

135120207121003

Understanding Image Restoration Strategies from a Stakeholder Approach

In this journal, author generally discussed about how we can understanding image restoration strategies through theory of social construction of reality and stakeholder analysis approach in order to regain positive organization image. At first, the journal talked about Thai crisis which was mostly is political crisis. She has an opinion that, we can not applied image restoration carelessly due to Thai context is eastern perspective which has different belief, values, attitudes, and also different expectations among stakeholders. Kessadayurat said, By adding social construction of reality, it was hoped to understand how an organization’s image restoration strategies function in constructing its image, as social reality, for people (Kessadayurat, 2011).

Secondly, the journal discussed about crisis communication and organization image. In organizational image, crisis is perceived as a threat. We will understand what kind of crisis that being faced through variables that are normally found in the examination of a crisis and the organization’s response. That is the reason communication within organization is considered as a means to communicate organizational crisis response strategies to its various publics. Threat arises from the extreme discrepancy between the desired status of an organization, and the status under which it is being. So, the organization have to monitor various possible outcomes and responses. Also, the crisis manager should be able to give a credible explanation within short time towards publics, stakeholders, and related parties in order to save the organization’s image.

To reach an effective way, crisis management needs to consider the importance of publics by shifting and categorizing public. Generally, the way organization manage its crisis is through preventive and restorative approaches. Kessadayurat (2011) said, In preventive approach, issue management by an organization allows two-way communication between organization and public to create mutual understanding. But, restorative approaches is needed when an organization fails to detect issues and it becomes a crisis.

Communication is considered as the essential means to restore a person’s or organization’s image after the crisis. image restoration strategy focuses primarily on the message factor, image restoration deals with the process of communication. to understand the image restoration message as communication process is through the perspective of social construction; particularly, the theory of social construction of reality. reviewing the original concept of social construction of reality would provide a better understanding of how the theory may be applicable to the study of image restoration. It’s regarding with how image is considered as socially constructed reality through communication. language is used to influence one’s understanding and perception towards an organization’s image. Through interaction, communication plays an important role in assigning, reinforcing and maintaining the social meaning for each individual based on common knowledge. theory of social construction of reality will provide a clear understanding of how strategic image restoration messages are communicated to different group of stakeholder as to restore its image. theory of social construction of reality can provide a clear understanding of how communication influences and maintains one’s perception towards a subjective fact towards an organization, socially-created reality, image or how image is considered as socially constructed reality through communication.

            Regarding with stakeholder theory, there are 3 perspective in it. First is broad, focuses on the stakeholder in terms of the mass of public opinion. Second,  narrow a priori, view the stakeholder as objective, or predetermined set of stakeholders categories. Thrid, narrow situational approach which is more fluid and flexible not fixed, depending on the situation. So the purpose of  this journal is develop a deeper understanding on image restoration.

Impact Of Past Crises On Current Crisis Communication

            In this journal, author discussed about a deadly blast ripped in Phillips Petroleum Company facility in Pasadena, Texas and how to overcome using Situational Crisis Communication Theory. SCCT argues that whether people knowabout past crises is an important consideration for crisis managers. Attribution theory holds that people will make judgments about the causes of events, especially unexpected events with negative outcomes. Attributions are perceptions of the causality or the perceived reasons for a particular event’s occurrence. crisis managers can use crisis response strategies in their attempts to shape attributions of the crisis and/or perceptions of the organization itself. Attribution theory provides the link necessary to match crisis response strategies with a crisis situation. SCCT uses the attributions of responsibility to forge a connection between crisis response strategies and the crisis situation.

Crisis responsibility, the degree to which stakeholders attribute responsibility for a crisis to an organization, is the centerpiece of SCCT. Attributions of crisis responsibility are directly related to the reputational threat posed by a crisis. A history of similar crises can indicate that a crisis is stable rather than unstable, thereby increasing attributions of crisis responsibility. Most people receive information about corporations through indirect experiences such as the news. The use of newspaper articles as a stimulus matches well with how nonvictim publics generally encounter a crisis. Areputation is developed through direct and indirect experience with an organization. The information reported in the media is given salience when the reputation is formed, that is, media coverage can shape a reputation. What is reported about the crisis can have a profound effect on the organization’s reputation.

When crises involved product tampering and technical-error product recalls, respondents perceived the reputation of the organization with a history of such crises as significantly more negative than the reputation of an organization without past crises or with an unknown history. The information indicating no past crises manipulation was minimally successful and must be considered when interpreting the results. The product tampering and workplace violence crisis scenarios were shown to generate high attributions of external control and low perceptions of personal control. When news media provide no information about past crises, stakeholders are likely to assume there were no past crises. An organization wants to maintain a clean crisis record because similar past crises will complicate the management of the current crisis. A crisis originally considered a mild reputational threat moved to the moderate threat level and a crisis originally considered a moderate reputational threat moved to the severe threat level when the organization had a history of crises.

The results showed a direct, negative relationship between crisis history and organizational reputation. A history of similar crises lowered perceptions of an organization’s reputation. The results support an indirect relationship between crisis history and organization reputation, too. The crisis history audit would provide reliable information on the crisis history that could help to more accurately evaluate the reputational threat posed by the current situation. Crisis managers always have the option of trying to fight stakeholder attributions, using crisis response strategies in an effort to alter attributions of crisis responsibility. An organization is served better by accepting and working within the constraints of crisis responsibility attributions. Future research should consider the difference between crisis types and crisis clusters. Future research should consider the difference between crisis types and crisis clusters. To exercise control, a researcher has to select a set of variables to use and exclude. SCCT suggest that crisis history should result in crisis managers selecting response strategies that accept greater responsibility.

References:

Coombs, W. T. (2006). Impact of past crises on current crisis communication. Journal of Business Communication, 41 (3), 265-289.

Kessadayurat, C. (2011). Understanding image restoration strategies from a stakeholder approach. Bu Academic Review, 10 (1), 282-287.